A tale of ambition, betrayal, and survival in the twilight of the Vijayanagara Empire
The early 17th century was a turbulent time for South India. As the mighty Vijayanagara Empire began to fragment, regional powers emerged, Muslim sultans advanced southward, and European traders carved out their own footholds along the coast. This is the story of how these forces collided in the Carnatic region, reshaping the political landscape forever.
The Mysore Challenge: When Vassals Become Rivals
The trouble began early in Venkatapati Raya’s reign. In 1610, Raja Udayar of Mysore made a bold move that would set the tone for decades of conflict—he captured Seringapatam. This wasn’t just any conquest; Seringapatam was a crucial stronghold under Vijayanagara’s control.
Venkatapati Raya found himself in an impossible position. Too weak to punish this act of rebellion, he was forced to do the unthinkable: legitimize it. In 1612, he issued a charter recognizing Raja Udayar’s possession of Srirangapatnam and even granted him authority over territories that had previously been under the Vijayanagara viceroy.
This was more than a political defeat—it was a sign of the empire’s declining power. The Mysore rulers had successfully transformed from loyal vassals into independent regional powers, and they weren’t done expanding.
The Bijapur Gambit: When Enemies Become Allies
As Mysore grew stronger, its expansion inevitably led to conflicts with neighboring rulers. The most significant of these was with the Nayak of Ikkeri, a powerful regional chief who controlled important territories in present-day Karnataka.
The conflict began with a rebellion. Kenga Hanuma of Basavapattana, a local chieftain (poligar) in the Ikkeri region, rose against Virabhadra Nayak of Ikkeri. When Virabhadra crushed this rebellion and stripped Kenga Hanuma of his lands, the defeated chieftain made a fateful decision—he traveled to the Bijapur court to seek the Sultan’s help.
He wasn’t alone in this strategy. Another displaced ruler, Channayya of Nagamangala (who had been dispossessed by Chamaraja Udayar of Mysore), had already made similar appeals to Bijapur.
The First Muslim Invasion of Mysore (1638-39)
The timing was perfect for the Bijapur Sultan. Having recently made peace with the troublesome Mughals in the north, he was free to turn his attention southward. The invasion that followed would mark the first major Muslim incursion into Mysore.
Under the command of Ranadulla Khan, the Bijapur forces achieved impressive initial success. They restored Kenga Hanuma to power and then moved to capture three crucial provinces: Ikkeri, Sira, and Bangalore. The last of these was particularly significant, as it had been under the control of the powerful Jagadeva Rayal before being conquered by Mysore.
The campaign’s climax came with a daring double siege—the Bijapurians simultaneously laid siege to both Mysore and Srirangapatnam. But here, they encountered something unexpected: fierce, organized resistance that brought their advance to a grinding halt.
The Treaty and Its Aftermath
The stalemate led to negotiations and eventually a treaty that would reshape the region’s political map. Under its terms, Bijapur gained control of all territory north of the Kaveri River, including the important centers of Bangalore and Sira. It seemed like a decisive victory for the Sultan.
However, treaties are only as good as the willingness to enforce them, and problems soon emerged. Kenge Hanuma, now restored to power under Bijapur’s protection, proved to be a troublesome ally. Virabhadra Nayak of Ikkeri reported his disloyalty to Bijapur, leading to investigations and further complications.
Meanwhile, Kanthiravanarasa of Mysore showed little inclination to honor his obligations under the treaty. This led to a cycle of invasions and counter-invasions as successive Bijapur commanders—Mustafa Khan, Abdulla Khan, and Hemaji Pandit—tried and failed to bring the recalcitrant Mysore ruler to heel.
The Vijayanagara Response: Sriranga’s Struggle
While these events unfolded in the west, the Vijayanagara Empire faced its own existential crisis. When Venkatapati Raya died in 1642, his nephew Sriranga ascended the throne, but his succession was contested by powerful nobles.
The most significant opposition came from the Velugoti brothers of Kalahasti—Damarla Venkatadri (known to Europeans as Venkatappa) and his brother Aiyappa. These men had essentially controlled the empire’s administration during the previous reign, with Venkatadri serving as chief of Wandiwash and Aiyappa governing from Poonamallee near modern-day Chennai.
Sriranga proved to be made of sterner stuff than his predecessor. Determined to reassert central authority, he had Venkatadri arrested and confined. This bold move triggered a crisis as the Damarla brothers’ supporters “raised a large army and hoped to restore him to freedom with the aid of the Muhammadans whom they were hourly expecting.”
The Southern Strategy: Alliance and Betrayal
Sriranga’s problems weren’t limited to rebellious nobles. The southern Nayaks—the rulers of Madura, Tanjore, and Gingee—presented their own challenges. These regional powers had grown increasingly independent and were constantly maneuvering for advantage.
The situation became particularly complex when Sriranga invaded the dominions of Tirumala Nayak of Madura, who had formed an alliance with the Nayaks of Tanjore and Gingee. In a twist worthy of a political thriller, the Nayak of Tanjore betrayed his allies by revealing their schemes to Sriranga, prompting the Vijayanagara ruler to turn his attention to Gingee.
This betrayal had far-reaching consequences. Tirumala Nayak, feeling cornered, made his own fateful decision—he sought help from the Sultan of Golconda.
The Golconda Invasion: A Kingdom Under Siege
The invitation from Tirumala Nayak provided Golconda with the perfect excuse to intervene in Vijayanagara affairs. The Sultan’s invasion in 1644 marked the beginning of a period that would see the empire fighting for its very survival.
Initially, Sriranga managed to repel the Golconda forces, and his records show uninterrupted rule until 1649. However, he lost the important fortress of Vellore in 1645, a significant blow to his defensive capabilities. The decade from 1649-59 tells its own story through absence—it is “barren of inscriptions,” suggesting the extent to which royal authority had collapsed during this period.
The Great Betrayal: When Allies Become Enemies
Perhaps the most dramatic episode in this saga occurred when Sriranga, facing renewed Muslim invasions, attempted to forge an alliance with the southern Nayaks he had previously fought. The contemporary Jesuit accounts paint a vivid picture of what followed:
Sriranga “spent more than a year with the three Nayaks in the midst of festivities, feasts and pleasures, during which the Muhammadans quietly achieved the conquest of his dominions. Soon, vain joys gave place to jealousies and divisions. Rejected again by the Nayaks, Sriranga established his court in the forests of Kalians… where he spent four months, a prey to all discomforts; his courtiers soon abandoned him.”
This passage captures the tragic irony of Sriranga’s situation—while he celebrated with potential allies, his enemies were conquering his kingdom.
The Mysore Lifeline: An Unlikely Savior
In his darkest hour, Sriranga found an unexpected ally in Kanthiravanarasa of Mysore—the same ruler who had been causing problems for Bijapur. Despite their previous conflicts, Kanthiravanarasa provided refuge to the displaced Vijayanagara emperor and helped him recover portions of his territory.
Even more significant was the intervention of Sivappa Nayak of Ikkeri (1645-1660). Possessing “an enormous treasure and an army of 40 to 50 thousand men,” Sivappa proved to be a formidable ally. He launched a systematic campaign to retake Vellore from the Muslims, conducting a regular blockade that eventually forced the fortress to surrender.
The Restoration: A Phoenix from the Ashes
Sriranga’s restoration to Vellore marked a remarkable turnaround in his fortunes. Contemporary inscriptions from 1645-46 to 1649 show him ruling from Vellore rather than the traditional capital of Penukonda, indicating that this became his new base of operations.
The English at Madras, always keen observers of political changes, noted the transformation in Sriranga’s position. One contemporary letter observed that his authority was “now stronger than ever” and that he had “brought all his great lords under his command, which hath not been this forty years before.”
The European Angle: Traders in a Time of Chaos
Throughout these tumultuous events, European traders—English, Dutch, and Portuguese—were establishing their own footholds along the coast. Their records provide invaluable insights into these conflicts, as they had to navigate the changing political landscape to protect their commercial interests.
The English at Fort St. George (modern Chennai) obtained their original grant from the Damarla brothers and later had to secure confirmation from various rulers as political control shifted. The Dutch at Pulicat faced similar challenges, sometimes finding themselves besieged by the same Muslim forces threatening their Indian allies.
One particularly interesting figure was Mallayya (also called Mallai or Chinana Chetty), who had been a broker to the Dutch but rose to become one of Sriranga’s most important officials. His story illustrates how the chaos of the time created opportunities for capable individuals to rise rapidly in status and influence.
The Final Act: When Everything Falls Apart
The story’s climax came when Mir Jumla, the powerful minister of Golconda, formed an alliance with Bijapur to launch a coordinated assault on what remained of Sriranga’s kingdom. This represented a nightmare scenario for Vijayanagara—its two most powerful Muslim neighbors working together.
The alliance achieved devastating success. Mir Jumla captured Udayagiri, the capital of the eastern portion of Sriranga’s kingdom, after Mallayya treacherously surrendered “the strongest hold in the kingdom” in exchange for safe passage for himself and his followers.
The Bijapur forces, meanwhile, captured Gingee and other coastal strongholds, effectively cutting Sriranga off from his sources of revenue and European support. By 1648, Sriranga was forced to flee to Mysore once again, this time with perhaps only Chandragiri and a few surrounding miles under his control.